anthropological theory: cultural materialism and symbolic anthropology

자료: http://staffwww.fullcoll.edu/kmarkley/Cult%20pkt%20fall%2009.doc

Anthropological Theory:

Should the study of Humans be scientific or humanistic?

This is an ongoing debate in the anthropology. Cultural materialism is a theoretical orientation that focuses on a scientific approach to the study of humans and human institutions while symbolic anthropology focuses on a humanistic approach. Make sure to know the key aspects of each theoretical orientation.

Cultural Materialism:

Formulated by Marvin Harris. Harris stated that humans can and should be studied scientifically (etic perspective). He states that human beliefs and practices can be explained by looking at the material (environmental and historical) conditions under which beliefs and practices arose. The environment constrains and shapes the ways humans work to fulfill basic needs. All customs and beliefs, no matter how exotic, can be explained rationally by looking at the material conditions under which they arose. Harris states that the emic perspective is not very helpful in gaining insights into human beliefs and behaviors because he sees most humans everyday consciousness as being filled with “ignorance, fear and conflict.” He does not see most humans as being capable of discerning why they believe and act the way in which they do.

Cultural Materialism: Scientific approach, Etic perspective

Goal is to find the cause and effect explanations for differences and similarities in beliefs and practices in cultural groups around the world.

This theory sees the material and environmental constraints (conditions & constraints imposed by environment & technology) as leading to differences in beliefs & practices (beliefs are shaped by material conditions).

Human believes and behaviors have developed from a material history that can explain what may seem to be irrational beliefs and behaviors but which in fact have a rational basis.

A materialist model of culture include three layers:

1) material foundation-economic mode of production, technology, population size

2) system of social organization, kinship patterns, marriage and family practices, politics, status differentiation

3) ideology or belief system, ideas, beliefs, values (both secular and sacred)

See your article on “Culture and the Evolution of Obesity” for an example of how this theory is used.

Symbolic:

Symbolic anthropologists are fundamentally concerned with the ways in which people formulate their reality. The goal for symbolic anthropologists is to gain insight into the meanings relevant to the members of a culture. Symbolic anthropologists utilize a humanistic approach to gaining insights into human beings and cultures. They study peoples symbols, their literature, and their games. The emic perspective is highly valued in symbolic and humanistic anthropology. What people say about their cultural values and norms is considered very important.

Symbolic Anthropology: Humanistic, Emic perspective

Goal is cultural interpretation, look to symbols, literature, games to gain insight into meanings & experiences of a culture

What does it mean to be a human in a particular culture, get at the “essence of being human”

Case Example: The Prohibition on eating of beef in India

In the United States in the 1970’s economists were analyzing issues of poverty and hunger in India. It was observed that in India, where the majority of the people are Hindu, there is a religious prohibition on the eating of beef. In America beef is a major source of protein. Some analysts stated that if Indians would just give up this irrational food taboo that they would be able to alleviate their hunger problems. In other words, they were going hungry because of an irrational religious belief. It was observed that there was a surplus of cows in India and these cows could easily work to feed the people of India. Below is an analysis by cultural materialists and symbolic anthropologists into this issue.

Cultural Materialists: Marvin Harris looked into this issue and came to the conclusion that the prohibition on the eating and killing of cows is rational. Harris stated that you must look at the material conditions under which people live for explanations of food taboo’s. Remember Harris emphasizes the idea that humans are rational, and there are almost always rational explanations for the beliefs and practices that we have. He is most concerned with an etic analysis.

Harris stated that a prohibition on the eating of cows in India evolved over time because;

1) cows were essential as plow animals, if they were eaten in lean times, the people would starve eventually because they would have no means to plow their fields

2) cows were needed for reproduction, to produce more animals for the future

3) cows were needed for their dung; dung is used as a fertilizer, it is burned in cow patties as a source of heat and a means to cook food, and dung is mixed with water and made into a paste for flooring.

Symbolic Anthropologists: Are concerned with looking into the meaning that a symbol holds for a culture, they are concerned with the emic. Symbolic anthropologists note that the cow symbolizes life to Hindu’s. Cows “represents our soul, our obstinate intellect, and our unruly emotions, however the cow also supercedes us because it gives so much and yet takes nothing beyond grass and grain.” Ghandi “stated that cows made agriculture possible” and agriculture made life possible. Cows are viewed as a virtual sustainer of life for humans. Indians state that “if no other source of food existed humans could still survive on the cream, butter, milk provided by this animal.”