번역가 김홍식의 블로그입니다: 12/01/2008

Art of Ancient Greece

자료: http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/dmiller/Socrates/Changes%20in%20Art.ppt

고대 그리스의 예술 유산에 대해 슬라이드 쇼 보기로 둘러보기에 아주 좋은 자료 같다.

History of Greece

자료: http://www.howtobooks.co.uk/abroad/greece/history.asp

Introducing the Geometric and Archaic Period

This period from the 11th to the 8th century BC is known as the 'Geometric period' because of the geometric designs which were dominant in Greek art at the time. The Geometric period was followed by the 'Archaic era', which covers the 8th to the 5th century BC. This era was of great importance to the ancient Greek cities, particularly Athens and Sparta, which pioneered developments in the years immediately following.

Moving into a Classical Era

The 5th and 4th centuries BC are regarded as the 'Classical years' during which the ancient Greek civilisation was at its mightiest. After a series of successful battles, the Persian attempts to conquer Greece in the years 490-479 BC were finally thwarted and the Greek cities enjoyed a period of peace and tranquility, during which the arts flourished.

This was the period when the theatrical tragedies of the poets Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides provided the foundation for classical drama,
whilst the writings of Aristophanes introduced satirical comedy.
The letters of Socrates and his pupil Plato illustrate the great debates of knowledge and meaning.
During this time the monuments of the Acropolis in Athens were built, of which the most important is the Parthenon, a temple dedicated to the goddess Athena, whose construction lasted from 447-432 BC.

The Parthenon, gradually fading away and now closed to the public, remains the premier landmark in Athens today. It has been roped off from the public since 1983 when the Parthenon Restoration project commenced, funded by the Greek government and EU funds.

The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta (431-404 BC) resulted in the loss of power in towns and states of southern Greece. This gave birth to the ascendancy of Thebes and defeat of Sparta in the northern state of Macedonia, whose King Philip managed to unite all Greeks. Macedonia became the lynchpin in Greek affairs during the 4th century BC. Philip was succeeded by his son Alexander the Great, who set about defeating the Persians and effectively progressing the influence of Greece throughout the Middle East.

Progressing through Hellenistic years

After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, the 'Hellenistic years' were born, during which Greek civilization went through a revitalisation not only in Greece, but also throughout the Middle East where Greek monarchies were installed. However, on-going civil wars reduced Greek powers further and the country was eventually overcome by the Romans in 146 BC.

Moving the seat of the Roman Empire

Constantine the Great transferred the seat of the Roman Empire in 330 AD to a new city named after him, Constantinople. In 395 AD the Roman Empire was divided between the west and the east with Constantinople as its capital. The eastern Roman Empire under the influence of Greek civilisation was gradually hellenised and developed into the Byzantine Empire, retaining language and culture as its hallmarks. The Byzantine Empire came to an abrupt end in 1453 AD with the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. Crete was the last bastion to fall to the Turks, surviving a further 400 years.

Stealing the Marbles

Many relics and artifacts of the Byzantine era can now be seen at the British Museum in London, where you will also find the Parthenon sculptures or 'Elgin Marbles' removed from the Parthenon by the British diplomat Thomas Bruce, seventh Earl of Elgin, in 1806 and transported back to England, after he acquired the sculptures from the Turks to prevent them being crushed for building materials. At the time Lord Elgin was criticised for removing priceless national treasures. After a ten year struggle he persuaded the British government to buy the marbles and place them in the British Museum. The chief pieces by the 5th century BC master Phidias are from the frieze and tympani of the Parthenon. Until the death in 1995 of Melina Mercouri, the film star who became the Greek Minister for Culture, there appeared to be a chance, albeit a slim one, that one day the tablets would be returned to their rightful resting place.

(continued on the source link above)

그리스 문자 (Wikipedia 개요 자료)

자료: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet

The Greek alphabet is a set of twenty-four letters that has been used to write theGreek language since the late 9th or early 8th century BCE. It is the first and oldestalphabet in the narrow sense that it notes each vowel and consonant with a separate symbol.^[2] It is as such in continuous use to this day. The letters were also used to represent Greek numerals, beginning in the 2nd century BCE.

The Greek alphabet is descended from the Phoenician alphabet, and is not related to Linear B or the Cypriot syllabary, earlier writing systems for Greek. It has given rise to many other alphabets used in Europe and the Middle East, including the Latin alphabet.^[2] In addition to being used for writing Modern Greek, its letters are today used as symbols in mathematics and science, particle names in physics, as names of stars, in the names of fraternities and sororities, in thenaming of supernumerary tropical cyclones, and for other purposes.

[edit]History

Main article: History of the Greek alphabet

The Greek alphabet emerged centuries after the fall of the Mycenaean civilization and consequent abandonment of its Linear B script, an early Greek writing system. Linear B is descended from Linear A, which was developed by the Minoans, whose language was probably unrelated to Greek; consequently the Minoan syllabary did not provide an ideal medium for the transliteration of the sounds of the Greek language.

The Greek alphabet we recognize today arose after the Greek Dark Ages — the period between the downfall of Mycenae (ca. 1200 BC) and the rise of Ancient Greece, which begins with the appearance of the epics of Homer, around 800 BC, and the institution of the Ancient Olympic Games in 776 BC. Its most notable change, as an adaptation of the Phoenician alphabet, is the introduction of vowel letters, without which Greek would be illegible.^[2]

Vowel signs were originally not used in Semitic alphabets. Whereas in the earlier West Semitic family of scripts (Phoenician, Hebrew, Moabite etc.) a letter always stood for a consonant in association with an unspecified vowel or no vowel; because these languages were Semitic, they lost no legibility in having no vowels, as Semitic words are based on triliteralroots that make meaning clear with only the consonants present, and vowels are clear from context. Greek, however, is an Indo-European language, and thus differences in vowels make for vast differences in meanings. Thus the Greek alphabet divided the letters into two categories, consonants ("things that sound along") and vowels, where the consonant letters always had to be accompanied by vowels to create a pronounceable unit. Although the old Ugaritic alphabet did develop matres lectionis, i.e., use of consonant letters to denote vowels, they were never employed systematically.

[show]History of the alphabet

The first vowel letters were Α (alpha), Ε (epsilon), Ι (iota), Ο (omicron), and Υ (upsilon), modifications of Semitic glottal, pharyngeal, or glide consonants that were mostly superfluous in Greek: /ʔ/ ('aleph), /h/ (he), /j/ (yodh), /ʕ/ (ʿayin), and /w/ (waw), respectively. In eastern Greek, which lacked aspiration entirely, the letter Η (eta), from the Semitic glottal consonant /ħ/ (heth) was also used for the long vowel /εː/, and eventually the letter Ω (omega) was introduced for a long /ɔː/.

Greek also introduced three new consonant letters, Φ (phi), Χ (chi) and Ψ (psi), appended to the end of the alphabet as they were developed. These consonants made up for the lack of comparable aspirates in Phoenician. In western Greek, Χ was used for /ks/and Ψ for /kʰ/ — hence the value of the Latin letter X, derived from the western Greek alphabet. The origin of these letters is disputed.

The letter Ϻ (san) was used at variance with Σ (sigma), and by classical times the latter won out, san disappearing from the alphabet. The letters Ϝ (wau, later called digamma) and Ϙ (qoppa) also fell into disuse. The former was only needed for the western dialects and the latter was never truly needed at all. These lived on in the Ionic numeral system, however, which consisted of writing a series of letters with precise numerical values. Ϡ (sampi), apparently a rare local glyph form from Ionia, was introduced at latter times to stand for 900. Thousands were written using a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc).

Because Greek minuscules arose at a much later date, no historic minuscule actually exists for san. Minuscule forms for the other letters were only used as numbers. For the number 6, modern Greeks use an old ligature called stigma (Ϛ, ϛ) instead of digamma, or ΣΤ/στ if this is not available. For 90 the modern Z-shaped qoppa forms were used: Ϟ, ϟ. (Note that some web browser/font combinations will show the other qoppa here.)

Originally there were several variants of the Greek alphabet, most importantly western (Chalcidian) and eastern (Ionic) Greek. The former gave rise to the Old Italic alphabet and thence to the Latin alphabet, while the latter is the basis of the present Greek alphabet.Athens originally used the Attic script for official documents such as laws and the works of Homer: this contained only the letters from alpha to upsilon, and used the letter eta for the sound "h" instead of the long "e". In 403 BC Athens adopted the Ionic script as its standard, and shortly thereafter the other versions disappeared.

By then Greek was written left to right, but originally it had been written right to left (with asymmetrical characters flipped), and in-between written either way — or, most likely, in the so-called boustrophedon style, where successive lines alternate direction.

Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the National Archaeological Museum of Athens

In the Hellenistic period, Aristophanes of Byzantium introduced the process ofaccenting Greek letters for easier pronunciation. During the Middle Ages, the Greek scripts underwent changes paralleling those of the Latin alphabet: while the old forms were retained as a monumental script, uncial and eventually minuscule hands came to dominate. The letter σ is even written ς at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the Latin long and short s.

[edit]Letter names

Each of the Phoenician letter names was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus 'aleph, the word for “ox”, was adopted for the glottal stop /ʔ/, bet, or “house”, for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, 'aleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma. These borrowed names had no meaning in Greek except as labels for the letters. However, a few signs that were added or modified later by the Greeks do in fact have names with a meaning. For example, o mikron and o mega mean “small o” and “big o”. Similarly, e psilon and u psilon mean “plain e” and “plain u”, respectively.

Main letters

Below is a table listing the Greek letters, as well as their forms when romanized. The table also provides the equivalent Phoenician letter from which each Greek letter is derived. Pronunciations transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet.

The classical pronunciation given below is the reconstructed pronunciation of Attic in the late 5th and early 4th century (BC). Some of the letters had different pronunciations in pre-classical times or in non-Attic dialects. For details, see History of the Greek alphabet and Ancient Greek phonology. For details on post-classical Ancient Greek pronunciation, see Koine Greek phonology.

Letter	Corresponding Phoenician letter	Name				Transliteration¹		Pronunciation		Numeric value
Letter	Corresponding Phoenician letter	English	Ancient Greek	Medieval Greek (polytonic)	Modern Greek (info)	Ancient Greek	Modern Greek	Classical Ancient Greek	Modern Greek	Numeric value
Α α	Aleph	Alpha	ἄλφα		άλφα	a		[a] [aː]	[a]	1
Β β	Beth	Beta	βῆτα		βήτα	b	v	[b]	[v]	2
Γ γ	Gimel	Gamma	γάμμα		γάμμα γάμα	g	gh, g, y	[g]	[ɣ], [ʝ]	3
Δ δ	Daleth	Delta	δέλτα		δέλτα	d	d, dh	[d]	[ð]	4
Ε ε	He	Epsilon	εἶ	ἒ ψιλόν	έψιλον	e		[e]		5
Ζ ζ	Zayin	Zeta	ζῆτα		ζήτα	z		[zd] (or [dz]) later [zː]	[z]	7
Η η	Heth	Eta	ἦτα		ήτα	e, ē	i	[ɛː]	[i]	8
Θ θ	Teth	Theta	θῆτα		θήτα	th		[tʰ]	[θ]	9
Ι ι	Yodh	Iota	ἰῶτα		ιώτα γιώτα	i		[i] [iː]	[i], [ʝ]	10
Κ κ	Kaph	Kappa	κάππα		κάππα κάπα	k		[k]	[k], [c]	20
Λ λ	Lamedh	Lambda	λάβδα	λάμβδα	λάμδα λάμβδα	l		[l]		30
Μ μ	Mem	Mu	μῦ		μι μυ	m		[m]		40
Ν ν	Nun	Nu	νῦ		νι νυ	n		[n]		50
Ξ ξ	Samekh	Xi	ξεῖ	ξῖ	ξι	x	x, ks	[ks]		60
Ο ο	'Ayin	Omicron	οὖ	ὂ μικρόν	όμικρον	o		[o]		70
Π π	Pe	Pi	πεῖ	πῖ	πι	p		[p]		80
Ρ ρ	Resh	Rho	ῥῶ		ρω	r (ῥ: rh)	r	[r], [r̥]	[r]	100
Σ σ ς	Sin	Sigma	σῖγμα		σίγμα	s		[s]		200
Τ τ	Taw	Tau	ταῦ		ταυ	t		[t]		300
Υ υ	Waw	Upsilon	ὖ	ὖ ψιλόν	ύψιλον	u, y	y, v, f	[y] [yː] (earlier [ʉ] [ʉː])	[i]	400
Φ φ	origin disputed (see text)	Phi	φεῖ	φῖ	φι	ph	f	[pʰ]	[f]	500
Χ χ		Chi	χεῖ	χῖ	χι	ch	ch, kh	[kʰ]	[x], [ç]	600
Ψ ψ		Psi	ψεῖ	ψῖ	ψι	ps		[ps]		700
Ω ω	'Ayin	Omega	ὦ	ὦ μέγα	ωμέγα	o, ō	o	[ɔː]	[o]	800